By Kylie Mohr for KFF Health News.
Broadcast version by Eric Tegethoff for Northern Rockies News Service reporting for the KFF Health News-Public News Service Collaboration

Every year, wildfires across the western U.S. and Canada send plumes of smoke into the sky. When that smoke blows into southwestern Idaho’s Treasure Valley, it blankets Boise-area residents in dirty air.

They include seniors living in long-term care facilities, many of whom are considered an at-risk population for smoke exposure because of respiratory or cardiac diseases.

“An astonishing amount of smoke gets inside these facilities,” said Luke Montrose, an environmental toxicologist and researcher at Colorado State University. Data from monitors Montrose installed in four Idaho long-term care facilities in 2020 showed that large amounts of smoke pollution recorded outside during wildfire season seeped into the facilities. One building let in 50% of the particulate matter outside; another, 100%. In some cases, Montrose said, “it was no better to be inside than to be outside during those smoke events.”

That’s why Montrose has spent the past few years installing more monitors in care facilities across Idaho and Montana. The study is expanding into Colorado this summer.

Understanding and addressing how wildfire smoke affects indoor air quality could help better treat the roughly 1.4 million seniors who live in more than 15,500 Medicare- and Medicaid-certified nursing homes nationwide and nearly a million more who live in assisted living facilities.

“It may be a game-changer for quality of care,” said Robert Vande Merwe, executive director of the Idaho Health Care Association. Vande Merwe helped persuade facilities to join Montrose’s study.

Although residents of the western U.S. have lived with smoky summers for decades, the fallout from wildfires is becoming a nationwide issue. Smoke from blazes in eastern Canada barreled into the densely populated Northeast and Midwest last June, making the skies above Toronto, New York, Chicago, and much of the Atlantic Coast glow an eerie orange. More than 120 million people were under air quality alerts. As wildfires increase in size, intensity, and duration, fueled by a combination of climate change and forest mismanagement, the smoke they generate will likely affect more people.

“We’re going to see more and more smoke events that reach further across the U.S. and across the world,” said Savannah D’Evelyn, a postdoctoral scholar at the University of Washington who studies wildfire smoke and its effects on health. She was not involved in Montrose’s study.

Air pollution from wildfire smoke — a brew of pollutants, water vapor, and fine debris — is a growing public health problem. Tiny particles known as PM 2.5 are small enough to embed deep into people’s lungs and, sometimes, infiltrate their bloodstream. Research has shown PM 2.5 can cause asthma and respiratory inflammation or jeopardize lung function, and the particles have been tied to some cancers. They are especially dangerous for children and people with preexisting heart or lung conditions — including seniors, the focus of Montrose’s work.

“I think honing in on this particular community that is really quite impacted by smoke exposure on the health side of things is really great,” D’Evelyn said. “It’s a gap that needs to be addressed.”

For years, public health officials have told people to go inside on bad air quality days, even though, without testing and filtration, indoor air quality often isn’t much better than what’s outside. Although skilled nursing facilities follow numerous federal regulations to participate in the Medicaid and Medicare programs — covering anything from building safety features, like fire sprinklers, to residents’ rights — indoor air quality isn’t addressed.

“There really aren’t any regulatory standards for indoor air quality, broadly, in any country that I’m aware of,” said Katherine Pruitt, national senior director for policy at the American Lung Association.

Without the few indoor air quality monitors in the study, long-term care facility managers or operators might check their local air quality index, or AQI, on their smartphone’s weather app or by watching the news. But air quality monitors don’t always provide accurate information about the air outside, let alone inside a building. Rural areas are particularly underserved by air quality monitors. According to Montrose, 25% to 30% of skilled nursing facilities in the Mountain West are more than 30 miles from a regulatory-grade monitor. Indoor air quality monitoring is rare outside of studies like Montrose’s.

That’s why Montrose is on a quest to get more air quality monitors placed inside facilities. In 2019, he contacted more than 80 Boise-area nursing and assisted living facilities to gauge interest and concern about wildfire smoke. In 2020, he collected data from indoor and outdoor air quality monitors at four nursing homes — two in the Boise area, others in northern and eastern Idaho. The monitors recorded particulate air pollution inside one facility nearly 17 times what’s considered healthy.

In 2021, data collected from six facilities from July to October — four in Idaho and two in the Missoula, Montana, area — also showed that in some buildings indoor and outdoor air quality were almost identical on smoky days. Montrose repeated the monitoring at four other southern Idaho facilities last summer. The monitors fed real-time data to a dashboard that people running the nursing homes could see and respond to.

Protecting seniors from wildfire smoke is an important piece of wildfire preparedness, yet Montrose acknowledged that conducting research in nursing homes and care facilities has challenges. Unique ethical considerations arise with dementia or Alzheimer’s patients, who can’t give informed consent. Staff turnover makes it hard for researchers like Montrose to establish relationships with facility operators, and asking overburdened nurses or employees to do extra work, like understand and check air quality monitors, can be a nonstarter. Still, Montrose said, people living in long-term care facilities are particularly vulnerable. “If we can protect them, there’s great benefit to our communities,” he said.

Some facilities in Idaho have made changes because of the research. Those include a pre-fire season facility checklist to make sure filtering systems are in good shape and that doors and windows are properly sealed. They also share the area’s AQI as part of their daily morning safety meetings.

Mark Troen, regional maintenance director for 10 Edgewood Healthcare facilities in the Boise area, four of which had monitors last summer, laid out a litany of things he does when the indoor air quality rises past healthy levels: changing air filters to a higher level that traps more particulates, turning off outdoor air intake, and alerting staff to keep doors and windows closed. “Anything I can do to keep the residents safe, I’m all for,” Troen said.

Clinical staff members also have identified which residents have respiratory problems or are immunocompromised. In an intense smoke event, those people may get portable air filtration in their rooms for extra protection.

Troen plans to install air quality monitors from his own budget once the study’s monitors need to be replaced due to age. “To actually see in real time what your indoor air quality is is huge,” he said. “It helps us mitigate some of those problems, rather than waiting until it’s bad.”

Anyone can take steps to improve the air they’re breathing during wildfire season. “It’s pretty easy to clean indoor air,” D’Evelyn said. HEPA air filters are the gold standard but can cost upward of $100; creating a box fan filter is a cheaper alternative. According to D’Evelyn, making even one room in a building a “clean air space” can make a difference during a wildfire.

The American Lung Association’s Pruitt said starting policy conversations about regulating indoor air quality faces many barriers, including perceptions of federal overreach. In the absence of federal regulations, Pruitt believes, the most effective actions would likely come from state or local building codes and ventilation standards. “Policymakers should be looking at the steps that need to be taken to protect people from exposure to hazardous levels of smoke or other outdoor pollutants,” she said.

Montrose is recruiting more nursing homes to install air quality monitors this summer, including additional facilities in Idaho, Colorado, and Montana. Vande Merwe, of the Idaho Health Care Association, said other places in the region — like his hometown, Salt Lake City, which is situated where smoke and other pollutants accumulate — should take note. Breathing in the best possible air could make a big difference for residents’ health and quality of life as they age, he said.


Kylie Mohr wrote this story for KFF Health News.


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By Ethan Brown for The Sweaty Penguin.
Broadcast version by Mark Richardson for Colorado News Connection reporting for the Solutions Journalism Network-Public News Service Collaboration

It’s not every day that a journalist gets a request like this: instead of separate interviews, sources from three different organizations — Colorado’s Department of Transportation (CDOT), the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), and the Alliance for Aviation Across America — wanted to hop on the same Zoom call. Together.

That alone made me curious. Government agencies aren’t exactly known for seamless collaboration or cutting-edge innovation. Yet here they were, not only working together but making real progress toward an ambitious goal: decarbonizing air travel. As CDOT Division of Aeronautics Director Dave Ulane quipped on the call, “We’ve got a great legacy of being very innovative and forward-looking. It’s what the folks of Colorado expect.”

It’s a daunting expectation to say the least. Air travel is responsible for about 2.5% of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, the primary driver of global warming. That number is expected to triple by 2050. And decarbonizing the industry is notoriously difficult — electrifying planes poses steep technical challenges, and sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) make up less than 1% of total jet fuel demand according to a 2019 report.

From preparing local airports for unprecedented spikes in electricity demand to ensuring United Airlines can use hydrogen aircraft in the state, Colorado’s partnership is showing how the aviation industry’s hardest problems might be solved — not through isolated efforts, but by working together. At a time when global leaders at COP29 are debating worldwide aviation taxes and activists are seemingly tracking Taylor Swift’s private jet around the clock, Colorado’s collaboration is offering a refreshing possibility: a sustainable future without sacrificing air travel.

A pilot study

The aviation sector connects over 27,000 city pairs worldwide, contributes $3.5 trillion to global GDP, and supports 87.7 million jobs. Yet, the environmental toll of aviation is significant. Combusting jet fuel releases CO2 along with water vapor, soot, and nitrogen oxides, intensifying warming at high altitudes through complex atmospheric reactions. These factors make aviation responsible for 3.5% of global climate impact, despite contributing only 2.5% of global CO2 emissions.

Colorado had other ideas. Believing aviation could become more sustainable, CDOT’s Division of Aeronautics launched a collaboration with NREL and its network of public-use airports and flight schools, creating what might be a first-of-its-kind approach to sustainable aviation.

“We were the first state aviation agency to actually partner with NREL and use their expertise to help us take a look at what these new technologies look like, when they might come into service, and really what sort of infrastructure needs might be needed at some of these airports to support them,” explained Ulane.

At its core, the partnership is about combining expertise. NREL brings cutting-edge research into potential sustainable aviation solutions such as SAFs, hydrogen, and electric-powered planes, while CDOT contributes the local understanding and coordination needed to ensure solutions can actually be executed. Colorado officially announced the collaboration in May 2023, with the Colorado Aeronautical Board approving a $400,000 budget to support NREL’s research efforts.

“We’re happy to have them do that [research] work for us,” said Ulane. “I think we’re a little more than halfway through, and look forward to getting an initial glimpse of what we need to start thinking about in our airports to get ready.”

“NREL is working across all different types of fuels, from sustainable aviation fuel, hydrogen power, electric hybrids,” added Brett Oakleaf, NREL’s Strategic Partnership Manager. “We’re really trying to understand the research and development needs in each of those across those different fuel platforms. But we’re also trying to give the airports the infrastructure, and understanding of what are those challenges and how do you optimize and de-risk those.”

The collaboration extends beyond the two government agencies. Ulane shared that all Colorado stakeholders, from airports to utilities to flight training programs, have been providing data for NREL’s reports and expressing interest in the outcome.

“Flight schools in particular see the issues around noise and leaded fuel as really kind of a threat to their operation,” Ulane noted. “So I think we’ve had really great participation and cooperation from the largest flight schools, most of which are centered here in the Denver area.”

“The collaboration between different sectors — all levels of government, the private sector, industry, research institutions and research universities — is really important,” added Devin Osting, Interim Executive Director of the Alliance for Aviation Across America, a nonprofit coalition advocating for the value of general aviation and local airports, particularly for rural communities. “It shows the proactivity of the industry.”

Preparing for takeoff

Decarbonizing aviation is not just a technology challenge, as Ulane and Oakleaf point out. For example, electric aircraft are a promising option for decarbonizing short-distance air travel, especially for trips under 500 miles. They come with clear advantages — quieter flights, lower maintenance costs, and reduced emissions. Models like electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft offer entirely new designs almost reminiscent of a helicopter, and could expand access to smaller airports or even new vertiport locations, opening up new travel options for underserved areas. Several manufacturers are already testing these aircraft and working through FAA certification.

Technologically, batteries remain heavy and limited in range, and the industry is still years away from mass adoption. But Scott Cary, who leads the ports and airports program within the Energy Systems Integration directorate of NREL, zeroed in on the implementation challenge.

“You have flight schools that are saying, hey, we want to buy these [electric aircraft]. And I heard I need some electricity. Can somebody help me with that?” said Cary. “Being able to come up with a good estimate of what they can go talk to their utility about and how to make it as cost-effective as possible is probably one of the big things that comes out of this.”

That’s where this collaboration proves essential. If electric aircraft went mainstream tomorrow, Colorado’s airports — really, all airports — would lack the electric capacity to charge those planes, let alone with clean energy. NREL’s research will identify gaps in local airport infrastructure, as well as which Colorado airports might be best suited to adopt the technology first, particularly for flight training.

“In many cases, these are small communities that struggle with reliable power because they’re at the end of the line,” said Cary. “And so we’re bringing power closer to the end of the line through the transportation system, and potentially helping the community for the majority of the time when those [charging systems] aren’t being used.”

NREL and CDOT are tackling similar challenges with hydrogen. Hydrogen-powered aircraft offer another promising pathway to decarbonize aviation, particularly for longer flights where batteries fall short. Hydrogen has a higher energy-to-weight ratio than batteries, making it a strong contender for powering aircraft over greater distances. Moreover, refueling hydrogen can be as fast as traditional jet fuel, it emits little to no carbon when produced cleanly, and it has the potential to reduce noise levels from engine operations.

On the technology side, hydrogen currently remains expensive, reliant on fossil fuels for production, and difficult to store. But as others work to tackle these challenges, NREL and CDOT are looking a few steps ahead. “United Airlines has a hub here in Denver, and they’ve got an order for 100 hydrogen hybrid regional aircraft,” said Ulane. “They fly to 14 other cities in Colorado. So how can we help one of our biggest airlines leverage this new technology in our state?”

Implementing hydrogen technology can’t happen overnight, according to Ulane. It will require rethinking airport infrastructure, from refueling stations to storage facilities to safety regulations. By working with NREL, Ulane’s team can find answers to these questions sooner rather than later, giving the Centennial State the head start it needs to integrate hydrogen aircraft when they arrive.

“How [do we] get hydrogen airports? What does that look like? How do the airports use it? Down the road, we’re going to have to look at a whole variety of other things, like storage and aircraft rescue, firefighting requirements that might be different for a hydrogen-powered aircraft versus a fossil fuel airplane.”

Navigating headwinds

Of course, the collaboration is not without its limitations. While the technologies themselves are in their infancy, this collaboration can’t necessarily change that reality — optimistic as they may be. With that in mind, researchers are working with projections rather than current data.

“We are trying to project what people are going to need before the vehicles are ever built,” said Cary. “That is a challenge.”

It’s not enough to project that airports will need a lot more electricity, for example. Cary pointed out that these infrastructure upgrades are expensive, and stakeholders rely on NREL to accurately predict their future electricity needs. An underestimate would be operationally problematic, while an overestimate would be financially burdensome.

“The easy answer is to oversize [the future electric load]. That may not be the cost-effective answer for these small businesses that are trying to leverage these new technologies.”

Sky’s the limit

While this particular project centers on Colorado, Ulane expressed hope that it can serve as a model for other states pursuing a sustainable aviation future.

“Aviation doesn’t end at the border of Colorado,” said Ulane. “We really want to help pave the way and show other state agencies and other airports and other groups how you can do this and take the lead.”

“I think it’s really going to inform a lot of other states and regions throughout the U.S.,” Oakleaf added. “We’re hoping this is the tip of the iceberg to inform a lot of decision-makers.”

In 2021, the International Business Aviation Council doubled down on its climate goals, floating the prospect of carbon-neutral aviation by 2050. Their declaration notes the need for all stakeholders — governments, fuel producers and suppliers, manufacturers, air navigation service providers, and airports and ground-handling service providers — to commit their participation and support. The Biden White House, for its part, set a goal to produce 3 billion gallons of sustainable aviation fuel per year by 2030 and 35 billion gallons by 2050, enough to supply 100% of domestic demand.

According to Osting, these goals are realistic. But it will take a team effort, emblematic of CDOT and NREL’s partnership, to achieve them.

“The commitments that have been made, net zero by 2050 — both by the general aviation community and by the broader aviation community internationally — are really important. These collaborative efforts are really what it’s going to take to get us there.”


Ethan Brown wrote this article for The Sweaty Penguin.


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Some sectors have made gains in Minnesota in reducing greenhouse-gas emissions. Progress has been slower for agriculture, but those pursuing solutions feel a breakthrough is near thanks to a redesign of a key farming product.

Ag experts say most fertilizers used by farmers are very carbon intensive because they're made with fossil fuels. However, Minnesota researchers have been leading the charge to phase out those elements by utilizing hydrogen from wind and solar energy in the production process.

If more farmers can take advantage of "green fertilizer", said Margaret Cherne-Hendrick, senior lead for innovation and impact at Fresh Energy, the state could be better positioned to confront troubling data.

"Agriculture accounts for about 21% of the state's greenhouse-gas emissions," she said, "and we're forecasting it's going to be one of the more difficult sectors to decarbonize."

While Minnesota government has made investments in the development of this product, including the University of Minnesota's West Central Research and Outreach Center in Morris, Cherne-Hendrick warned that the outcome of the presidential election could alter the landscape for federal incentives.

Meanwhile, a summit will be held Dec. 10 at the University of Minnesota Morris to discuss the future of this technology. The cleaner ammonia derived from this production can also be used for things such as shipping fuel.

Anne Schwagerl, vice president of the Minnesota Farmers Union, which is hosting the upcoming summit, said that having less-carbon intensive crops such as corn can open up more biofuel markets for farmers. And if more green fertilizer is made locally, it could enhance the presence of cooperatives.

"Minnesota has always been a leader in the cooperative movement," she said, "and this is just another opportunity for farmer ownership and rural community ownership of the things that we produce."

U.S. farmers have called attention to corporate consolidation among fertilizer companies, making prices out of reach for smaller independent operations. Next month's gathering is expected to include feedback about how to scale up the manufacturing of green fertilizer to help combat those market forces.

Utah's Great Salt Lake is shrinking, exposing more of its playa and lifting more potentially harmful dust particles into the air.

A new study seeks to understand the air quality and health impacts of the dust from the drying lake.

Kerry Kelly, associate professor of chemical engineering at Utah State University and the study's co-author, whose team took samples from the Great Salt Lake to assess what's known as the "oxidative potential" of dust particles, explained it gives researchers an indication of how materials within the dust could react with the lining of a person's lungs.

"That is important because more reactive materials and components can lead to inflammation," Kelly pointed out. "Inflammation is a very important process for all kinds of adverse health effects associated with particulate matter."

Kelly noted particulate pollution has been linked to health conditions and complications, from asthma to heart attack, stroke and even premature death. When the Great Salt Lake dust samples were compared to other regional playas, they were found to be more reactive, meaning they have a higher potential for serious health effects. Kelly added the study is the first of its kind and more research is needed to further understand the effects on air quality and public health.

Kelly asserted climate change is not the key driver to the shrinking of the Great Salt Lake. Instead, she explained, water diversions have led to the lake reaching historically low levels.

"We are taking the water, it's not making it to the lake," Kelly observed. "All of us -- residential, and commercial consumers -- we need to do our part but agriculture is about two-thirds of the story, so we're definitely going to have to work on agriculture."

Kelly stressed increasing dust storms are a concern in the Salt Lake Valley, located west of Utah's densely populated Wasatch Front. The research showed four to five dust storms occur in northern Utah every year, which transport metal-contaminated dust. For such situations, Kelly recommended staying inside and using a mask if you must leave the house.